Author: Hamid Bulut
Date: 2026-06-18

# Longitudinal MAIHDA: intersectional inequalities over time

#### Hamid Bulut

#### 2026-06-18

## From a snapshot to a trajectory

Standard (cross-sectional) MAIHDA answers “do intersectional strata differ?” at a single point in time, summarised by the between-stratum VPC. With repeated measurements we can ask a richer question: “do strata differ in how they change over time?” – and decompose those trajectory differences into an additive part (the dimensions’ main effects and their interactions with time) and a multiplicative part (an intersectional trajectory beyond additive).

This is the longitudinal MAIHDA of Bell, Evans, Holman & Leckie (2024). It is a 3-level growth-curve model with measurement occasions (level 1) within individuals (level 2) within intersectional strata (level 3), with a random intercept and a slope on time at both the individual and stratum levels:

\[ y_{tij} = \beta_0 + \beta_1 t + \underbrace{(u_{0j} + u_{1j}\,t)}_{\text{stratum}} + \underbrace{(v_{0ij} + v_{1ij}\,t)}_{\text{individual}} + e_{tij}. \]

Because the stratum random effect now has a slope, the between-stratum variance becomes a function of time:

\[ \operatorname{Var}_S(t) = \sigma^2_{u0} + 2t\,\sigma_{u01} + t^2 \sigma^2_{u1}, \qquad \operatorname{VPC}_S(t) = \frac{\operatorname{Var}_S(t)} {\operatorname{Var}_S(t) + \operatorname{Var}_I(t) + \sigma^2_e}. \]

## The data

The bundled `maihda_long_data` is a simulated panel: 600 people, each measured over five waves, within 12 strata of gender \(\times\) ethnicity \(\times\) education. The trajectory differences are constructed to be mostly additive with one genuine interaction, so the decomposition below is interpretable.

    data(maihda_long_data)
    head(maihda_long_data)
    #>      id wave gender ethnicity education age wellbeing low_wellbeing
    #> 1 P0001    0    Men      EthB       Low  50     3.732             1
    #> 2 P0001    1    Men      EthB       Low  50     3.696             1
    #> 3 P0001    2    Men      EthB       Low  50     1.638             1
    #> 4 P0001    3    Men      EthB       Low  50     3.585             1
    #> 5 P0001    4    Men      EthB       Low  50     3.594             1
    #> 6 P0002    0  Women      EthB       Low  56     5.631             0

It is long format, one row per person-occasion, with a person id (`id`) and a numeric time (`wave`).

## Fitting and the time-varying VPC

Supply `id` and `time` to `fit_maihda()`. You only need to write the strata shorthand `(1 | var1:var2)`; the growth slopes on time are added for you.

    m <- fit_maihda(wellbeing ~ wave + (1 | gender:ethnicity:education),
                    data = maihda_long_data, id = "id", time = "wave")
    summary(m)
    #> MAIHDA Model Summary
    #> ====================
    #>
    #> Variance Partition Coefficient (VPC/ICC) at baseline (wave = 0):
    #>   Estimate: 0.3985
    #>
    #> Variance Components:
    #>                                            component variance     sd
    #>                Between-stratum: intercept (time = 0)  0.40774 0.6385
    #>                        Between-stratum: slope (wave)  0.04284 0.2070
    #>          Between-stratum: intercept-slope covariance  0.08848     NA
    #>        Between-individual (id): intercept (time = 0)  0.25558 0.5055
    #>                Between-individual (id): slope (wave)  0.01936 0.1391
    #>  Between-individual (id): intercept-slope covariance -0.00110     NA
    #>                                    Within (residual)  0.35982 0.5999
    #>
    #> Time-varying VPC/ICC (between-stratum share over wave):
    #>   range 0.3985 to 0.6628 across wave in [0, 4].
    #>   The between-stratum variance is a function of time (random intercept +
    #>   slope), so the VPC varies; it depends on where time is zeroed. See
    #>   plot(type = "vpc_trajectory") for the full curve.
    #>
    #> Fixed Effects:
    #>         term  estimate
    #>  (Intercept)  4.986465
    #>         wave -0.006306
    #>
    #> Stratum baseline (intercept) deviations (first 10):
    #>  stratum stratum_id               label random_effect      se lower_95 upper_95
    #>        1          1    Men × EthB × Low      -0.63793 0.08953 -0.81340  -0.4625
    #>        2          2  Women × EthB × Low      -0.06461 0.08594 -0.23306   0.1038
    #>        3          3   Men × EthA × High       0.86073 0.07782  0.70820   1.0133
    #>        4          4   Men × EthB × High       0.09123 0.10259 -0.10985   0.2923
    #>        5          5 Women × EthA × High       0.93600 0.08804  0.76344   1.1086
    #>        6          6 Women × EthC × High       0.35847 0.13544  0.09300   0.6239
    #>        7          7   Men × EthC × High      -0.11459 0.13286 -0.37500   0.1458
    #>        8          8    Men × EthA × Low      -0.32848 0.07050 -0.46665  -0.1903
    #>        9          9  Women × EthA × Low       0.15991 0.07326  0.01633   0.3035
    #>       10         10    Men × EthC × Low      -0.82706 0.13286 -1.08747  -0.5667
    #>   ... and 2 more strata
    #>   (random slope not shown; use predict(type = "strata") for the per-stratum intercept and slope, or plot(type = "trajectories")).

`summary()` reports the VPC at the baseline (reference time, the earliest wave) and the full trajectory of the VPC across the observed times. Plot it:

    plot(m, type = "vpc_trajectory")   # VPC(t), with the reference time marked

    plot(m, type = "trajectories")     # predicted per-stratum mean trajectories

A rising VPC trajectory means the strata fan out over time (intersectional inequality grows).

## Decomposing the trajectory: additive vs. multiplicative

`maihda(decomposition = "longitudinal")` (selected automatically when `id`/`time` are supplied) fits a null growth model and an adjusted growth model. The adjusted model adds the dimensions’ main effects and their interactions with time (`dim:time`), so the stratum-level variance it leaves behind is the interaction beyond additive.

    a <- maihda(wellbeing ~ wave + (1 | gender:ethnicity:education),
                data = maihda_long_data, id = "id", time = "wave",
                decomposition = "longitudinal")
    a$pcv
    #> Longitudinal PCV (additive vs. multiplicative intersectionality)
    #> ================================================================
    #>
    #> Baseline (wave = 0) variance: 0.4077 (null) -> 0.0332 (adjusted)
    #>   PCV_intercept: 91.9% of the baseline between-stratum inequality is additive.
    #> Slope (wave) variance:          0.0428 (null) -> 0.0058 (adjusted)
    #>   PCV_slope:     86.6% of the *trajectory* between-stratum inequality is additive
    #>                  (the remainder is the multiplicative/interaction part).
    #>
    #> The PCV is the share of the null model's between-stratum (trajectory) variance
    #> explained by the dimensions' additive main effects and their time interactions;
    #> a high PCV_slope means trajectory inequalities are 'mostly additive'.

The PCV is reported separately for the two pieces of the trajectory:

- `PCV_intercept` – the share of the baseline between-stratum inequality explained by the additive main effects.
- `PCV_slope` – the share of the trajectory (slope) between-stratum inequality explained additively. A high `PCV_slope` is the “trajectories are mostly additive” finding; the remainder is the multiplicative/interaction part.

    plot(a, type = "pcv_trajectory")   # the additive share over time

## Scope and cautions

- Identifiability. A stratum random slope needs enough occasions per stratum; sparse strata or few waves can give a singular lme4 fit (surfaced in the fit diagnostics) – the brms engine handles this better.
- Not a single number. The VPC is time-varying, so `extract_between_variance()` and `calculate_pvc()` deliberately refuse a longitudinal model; use the longitudinal decomposition above.
- Out of scope (v1). Design-weighted, contextual (stratum \(\times\) place \(\times\) time), and `wemix`/`ordinal` longitudinal models are not yet supported.

## Reference

Bell, A., Evans, C., Holman, D., & Leckie, G. (2024). Extending intersectional multilevel analysis of individual heterogeneity and discriminatory accuracy (MAIHDA) to study individual longitudinal trajectories, with application to mental health in the UK. Social Science & Medicine, 351, 116955. doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2024.116955