rfc9324.original | rfc9324.txt | |||
---|---|---|---|---|
Network Working Group R. Bush | Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) R. Bush | |||
Internet-Draft IIJ Research Lab & Arrcus, Inc. | Request for Comments: 9324 IIJ Research Lab & Arrcus, Inc. | |||
Updates: 8481 (if approved) K. Patel | Updates: 8481 K. Patel | |||
Intended status: Standards Track Arrcus, Inc. | Category: Standards Track Arrcus, Inc. | |||
Expires: 23 March 2023 P. Smith | ISSN: 2070-1721 P. Smith | |||
PFS Internet Development Pty Ltd | PFS Internet Development Pty Ltd | |||
M. Tinka | M. Tinka | |||
SEACOM | SEACOM | |||
19 September 2022 | December 2022 | |||
RPKI-Based Policy Without Route Refresh | Policy Based on the Resource Public Key Infrastructure (RPKI) without | |||
draft-ietf-sidrops-rov-no-rr-08 | Route Refresh | |||
Abstract | Abstract | |||
A BGP Speaker performing RPKI-based policy should not issue Route | A BGP speaker performing policy based on the Resource Public Key | |||
Refresh to its neighbors because it has received new RPKI data. This | Infrastructure (RPKI) should not issue route refresh to its neighbors | |||
document updates [RFC8481] by describing how to avoid doing so by | because it has received new RPKI data. This document updates RFC | |||
either keeping a full Adj-RIB-In or saving paths dropped due to ROV | 8481 by describing how to avoid doing so by either keeping a full | |||
(Route Origin Validation) so they may be reevaluated with respect to | Adj-RIB-In or saving paths dropped due to ROV (Route Origin | |||
new RPKI data. | Validation) so they may be reevaluated with respect to new RPKI data. | |||
Requirements Language | ||||
The key words "MUST", "MUST NOT", "REQUIRED", "SHALL", "SHALL NOT", | ||||
"SHOULD", "SHOULD NOT", "RECOMMENDED", "NOT RECOMMENDED", "MAY", and | ||||
"OPTIONAL" in this document are to be interpreted as described in BCP | ||||
14 [RFC2119] [RFC8174] when, and only when, they appear in all | ||||
capitals, as shown here. | ||||
Status of This Memo | Status of This Memo | |||
This Internet-Draft is submitted in full conformance with the | This is an Internet Standards Track document. | |||
provisions of BCP 78 and BCP 79. | ||||
Internet-Drafts are working documents of the Internet Engineering | ||||
Task Force (IETF). Note that other groups may also distribute | ||||
working documents as Internet-Drafts. The list of current Internet- | ||||
Drafts is at https://datatracker.ietf.org/drafts/current/. | ||||
Internet-Drafts are draft documents valid for a maximum of six months | This document is a product of the Internet Engineering Task Force | |||
and may be updated, replaced, or obsoleted by other documents at any | (IETF). It represents the consensus of the IETF community. It has | |||
time. It is inappropriate to use Internet-Drafts as reference | received public review and has been approved for publication by the | |||
material or to cite them other than as "work in progress." | Internet Engineering Steering Group (IESG). Further information on | |||
Internet Standards is available in Section 2 of RFC 7841. | ||||
This Internet-Draft will expire on 23 March 2023. | Information about the current status of this document, any errata, | |||
and how to provide feedback on it may be obtained at | ||||
https://www.rfc-editor.org/info/rfc9324. | ||||
Copyright Notice | Copyright Notice | |||
Copyright (c) 2022 IETF Trust and the persons identified as the | Copyright (c) 2022 IETF Trust and the persons identified as the | |||
document authors. All rights reserved. | document authors. All rights reserved. | |||
This document is subject to BCP 78 and the IETF Trust's Legal | This document is subject to BCP 78 and the IETF Trust's Legal | |||
Provisions Relating to IETF Documents (https://trustee.ietf.org/ | Provisions Relating to IETF Documents | |||
license-info) in effect on the date of publication of this document. | (https://trustee.ietf.org/license-info) in effect on the date of | |||
Please review these documents carefully, as they describe your rights | publication of this document. Please review these documents | |||
and restrictions with respect to this document. Code Components | carefully, as they describe your rights and restrictions with respect | |||
extracted from this document must include Revised BSD License text as | to this document. Code Components extracted from this document must | |||
described in Section 4.e of the Trust Legal Provisions and are | include Revised BSD License text as described in Section 4.e of the | |||
provided without warranty as described in the Revised BSD License. | Trust Legal Provisions and are provided without warranty as described | |||
in the Revised BSD License. | ||||
Table of Contents | Table of Contents | |||
1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 | 1. Introduction | |||
2. Related Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 | 1.1. Requirements Language | |||
3. ROV Experience . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 | 2. Related Work | |||
4. Keeping Partial Adj-RIB-In Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 | 3. ROV Experience | |||
5. Operational Recommendations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 | 4. Keeping Partial Adj-RIB-In Data | |||
6. Security Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 | 5. Operational Recommendations | |||
7. IANA Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 | 6. Security Considerations | |||
8. Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 | 7. IANA Considerations | |||
9. References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 | 8. References | |||
9.1. Normative References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 | 8.1. Normative References | |||
9.2. Informative References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 | 8.2. Informative References | |||
Authors' Addresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 | Acknowledgements | |||
Authors' Addresses | ||||
1. Introduction | 1. Introduction | |||
Memory constraints in early BGP speakers caused classic [RFC4271] BGP | Memory constraints in early BGP speakers caused classic BGP | |||
implementations to not keep a full Adj-RIB-In (Sec. 1.1). When doing | implementations [RFC4271] to not keep a full Adj-RIB-In (Section 1.1 | |||
RPKI-based Route Origin Validation (ROV) ([RFC6811] and [RFC8481]), | of [RFC4271]). When doing RPKI-based Route Origin Validation (ROV) | |||
and similar RPKI-based policy, if such a BGP speaker receives new | [RFC6811] [RFC8481] and similar RPKI-based policy, if such a BGP | |||
RPKI data, it might not have kept paths previously marked as Invalid | speaker receives new RPKI data, it might not have kept paths | |||
etc. Such an implementation must then request a Route Refresh, | previously marked as Invalid, etc. Such an implementation must then | |||
[RFC2918] and [RFC7313], from its neighbors to recover the paths | request a route refresh [RFC2918] [RFC7313] from its neighbors to | |||
which might be covered by these new RPKI data. This will be | recover the paths that might be covered by these new RPKI data. This | |||
perceived as rude by those neighbors as it passes a serious resource | will be perceived as rude by those neighbors as it passes a serious | |||
burden on to them. This document recommends implementations keep and | resource burden on to them. This document recommends implementations | |||
mark paths affected by RPKI-based policy, so Route Refresh is no | keep and mark paths affected by RPKI-based policy, so route refresh | |||
longer needed. | is no longer needed. | |||
1.1. Requirements Language | ||||
The key words "MUST", "MUST NOT", "REQUIRED", "SHALL", "SHALL NOT", | ||||
"SHOULD", "SHOULD NOT", "RECOMMENDED", "NOT RECOMMENDED", "MAY", and | ||||
"OPTIONAL" in this document are to be interpreted as described in | ||||
BCP 14 [RFC2119] [RFC8174] when, and only when, they appear in all | ||||
capitals, as shown here. | ||||
2. Related Work | 2. Related Work | |||
It is assumed that the reader understands BGP, [RFC4271] and Route | It is assumed that the reader understands BGP [RFC4271], route | |||
Refresh [RFC7313], the RPKI [RFC6480], Route Origin Authorizations | refresh [RFC7313], the RPKI [RFC6480], Route Origin Authorizations | |||
(ROAs), [RFC6482], The Resource Public Key Infrastructure (RPKI) to | (ROAs) [RFC6482], the Resource Public Key Infrastructure (RPKI) to | |||
Router Protocol [I-D.ietf-sidrops-8210bis], RPKI-based Prefix | Router Protocol [RPKI-ROUTER-PROT-v2], RPKI-Based Prefix Validation | |||
Validation, [RFC6811], and Origin Validation Clarifications, | [RFC6811], and Origin Validation Clarifications [RFC8481]. | |||
[RFC8481]. | ||||
Note that the term "RPKI-based Route Origin Validation" in this | ||||
document means the same as the term "Prefix Origin Validation" used | ||||
in [RFC6811]. | ||||
3. ROV Experience | 3. ROV Experience | |||
As Route Origin Validation dropping Invalids has deployed, some BGP | As Route Origin Validation dropping Invalids has deployed, some BGP | |||
speaker implementations have been found which, when receiving new | speaker implementations have been found that, when receiving new RPKI | |||
RPKI data (VRPs, see [I-D.ietf-sidrops-8210bis]) issue a BGP Route | data (Validated ROA Payloads (VRPs) [RPKI-ROUTER-PROT-v2]), issue a | |||
Refresh [RFC7313] to all sending BGP peers so that it can reevaluate | BGP route refresh [RFC7313] to all sending BGP peers so that they can | |||
the received paths against the new data. | reevaluate the received paths against the new data. | |||
In actual deployment this has been found to be very destructive, | In actual deployment, this has been found to be very destructive, | |||
transferring a serious resource burden to the unsuspecting peers. In | transferring a serious resource burden to the unsuspecting peers. In | |||
reaction, RPKI based Route Origin Validation (ROV) has been turned | reaction, RPKI-based Route Origin Validation (ROV) has been turned | |||
off. There have been actual de-peerings. | off. There have been actual de-peerings. | |||
As RPKI registration and ROA creation have steadily increased, this | As RPKI registration and ROA creation have steadily increased, this | |||
problem has increased, not just proportionally, but on the order of | problem has increased, not just proportionally, but on the order of | |||
the in-degree of ROV implementing BGP speakers. As ASPA | the in-degree of ROV implementing BGP speakers. As Autonomous System | |||
([I-D.ietf-sidrops-aspa-verification]) becomes used, the problem will | Provider Authorization (ASPA) [AS_PATH-VER] becomes used, the problem | |||
increase. | will increase. | |||
Other mechanisms, such as automated policy provisioning, which have | Other mechanisms, such as automated policy provisioning, which have | |||
flux rates similar to ROV (i.e. on the order of minutes), could very | flux rates similar to ROV (i.e., on the order of minutes), could very | |||
well cause similar problems. | well cause similar problems. | |||
Therefore this document updates [RFC8481] by describing how to avoid | Therefore, this document updates [RFC8481] by describing how to avoid | |||
this problem. | this problem. | |||
4. Keeping Partial Adj-RIB-In Data | 4. Keeping Partial Adj-RIB-In Data | |||
If new RPKI data arrive which cause operator policy to invalidate the | If new RPKI data arrive that cause operator policy to invalidate the | |||
best route, and the BGP speaker did not keep the dropped routes, then | best route and the BGP speaker did not keep the dropped routes, then | |||
it would issue a route refresh, which this feature aims to prevent. | the BGP speaker would issue a route refresh, which this feature aims | |||
to prevent. | ||||
A route that is dropped by operator policy due to ROV is, by nature, | A route that is dropped by operator policy due to ROV is, by nature, | |||
considered ineligible to compete for best route, and MUST be kept in | considered ineligible to compete for the best route and MUST be kept | |||
the Adj-RIB-In for potential future evaluation. | in the Adj-RIB-In for potential future evaluation. | |||
Ameliorating the Route Refresh problem by keeping a full Adj-RIB-In | Ameliorating the route refresh problem by keeping a full Adj-RIB-In | |||
can be a problem for resource constrained BGP speakers. In reality, | can be a problem for resource-constrained BGP speakers. In reality, | |||
only some data need be retained. If an implementation chooses not to | only some data need be retained. If an implementation chooses not to | |||
retain the full Adj-RIB-In, it MUST retain at least routes dropped | retain the full Adj-RIB-In, it MUST retain at least routes dropped | |||
due to ROV, for potential future evaluation. | due to ROV for potential future evaluation. | |||
As storing these routes could cause problems in resource constrained | As storing these routes could cause problems in resource-constrained | |||
devices, there MUST be a global operation, CLI, YANG, etc. allowing | devices, there MUST be a global operation, CLI, YANG, or other | |||
the operator to enable this feature, storing the dropped routes. | mechanism that allows the operator to enable this feature and store | |||
Such an operator control MUST NOT be per peer, as this could cause | the dropped routes. Such an operator control MUST NOT be per peer, | |||
inconsistent behavior. | as this could cause inconsistent behavior. | |||
As a side note: policy which may drop routes due to RPKI-based checks | As a side note, policy that may drop routes due to RPKI-based checks | |||
such as ROV (and ASPA, BGPsec [RFC8205], etc. in the future) MUST be | such as ROV (and ASPA, BGPsec [RFC8205], etc., in the future) MUST be | |||
run, and the dropped routes saved per this section, before non-RPKI | run and the dropped routes saved per this section, before non-RPKI | |||
policies are run, as the latter may change path attributes. | policies are run, as the latter may change path attributes. | |||
5. Operational Recommendations | 5. Operational Recommendations | |||
Operators deploying ROV and/or other RPKI based policies should | Operators deploying ROV and/or other RPKI-based policies should | |||
ensure that the BGP speaker implementation is not causing Route | ensure that the BGP speaker implementation is not causing route | |||
Refresh requests to neighbors. | refresh requests to neighbors. | |||
BGP Speakers MUST either keep the full Adj-RIB-In or implement the | BGP speakers MUST either keep the full Adj-RIB-In or implement the | |||
specification in Section 4. Conformance to this behavior is a | specification in Section 4. Conformance to this behavior is an | |||
additional, mandatory capability for BGP speakers performing ROV. | additional, mandatory capability for BGP speakers performing ROV. | |||
If the BGP speaker does not implement these recommendations, the | If the BGP speaker does not implement these recommendations, the | |||
operator should enable the vendor's control to keep the full Adj-RIB- | operator should enable the vendor's control to keep the full Adj-RIB- | |||
In, sometimes referred to as "soft reconfiguration inbound". The | In, sometimes referred to as "soft reconfiguration inbound". The | |||
operator should then measure to ensure that there are no unnecessary | operator should then measure to ensure that there are no unnecessary | |||
Route Refresh requests sent to neighbors. | route refresh requests sent to neighbors. | |||
If the BGP speaker's equipment has insufficient resources to support | If the BGP speaker's equipment has insufficient resources to support | |||
either of the two proposed options (keeping a full AdjRibIn or at | either of the two proposed options (keeping a full AdjRibIn or at | |||
least the dropped routes), the equipment SHOULD either be replaced | least the dropped routes), the equipment SHOULD either be replaced | |||
with capable equipment or SHOULD NOT be used for ROV. | with capable equipment or SHOULD NOT be used for ROV. | |||
The configuration setting in Section 4 should only be used in very | The configuration setting in Section 4 should only be used in very | |||
well known and controlled circumstances where the scaling issues are | well-known and controlled circumstances where the scaling issues are | |||
well understood and anticipated. | well understood and anticipated. | |||
Operators using the specification in Section 4 should be aware that a | Operators using the specification in Section 4 should be aware that a | |||
misconfigured neighbor might erroneously send a massive number of | misconfigured neighbor might erroneously send a massive number of | |||
paths, thus consuming a lot of memory. Hence pre-policy filtering | paths, thus consuming a lot of memory. Hence, pre-policy filtering | |||
such as described in [I-D.sas-idr-maxprefix-inbound] could be used to | such as described in [MAXPREFIX-INBOUND] could be used to reduce this | |||
reduce this exposure. | exposure. | |||
If Route Refresh has been issued toward more than one peer, the order | If route refresh has been issued toward more than one peer, the order | |||
of receipt of the refresh data can cause churn in both best route | of receipt of the refresh data can cause churn in both best route | |||
selection and in outbound signaling. | selection and outbound signaling. | |||
Internet Exchange Points (IXPs) which provide [RFC7947] Route Servers | Internet Exchange Points (IXPs) that provide route servers [RFC7947] | |||
should be aware that some members could be causing an undue Route | should be aware that some members could be causing an undue route | |||
Refresh load on the Route Servers and take appropriate administrative | refresh load on the route servers and take appropriate administrative | |||
and/or technical measures. IXPs using BGP speakers as route servers | and/or technical measures. IXPs using BGP speakers as route servers | |||
should ensure that they are not generating excessive route refresh | should ensure that they are not generating excessive route refresh | |||
requests. | requests. | |||
6. Security Considerations | 6. Security Considerations | |||
This document describes a denial of service which Route Origin | This document describes a denial of service that Route Origin | |||
Validation or other RPKI policy may place on a BGP neighbor, and | Validation or other RPKI policy may place on a BGP neighbor and | |||
describes how it may be ameliorated. | describes how it may be ameliorated. | |||
Otherwise, this document adds no additional security considerations | Otherwise, this document adds no additional security considerations | |||
to those already described by the referenced documents. | to those already described by the referenced documents. | |||
7. IANA Considerations | 7. IANA Considerations | |||
None | This document has no IANA actions. | |||
8. Acknowledgements | ||||
The authors wish to thank Alvaro Retana, Ben Maddison, Derek Yeung, | ||||
John Heasley, John Scudder, Matthias Waehlisch, Nick Hilliard, Saku | ||||
Ytti, and Ties de Kock. | ||||
9. References | 8. References | |||
9.1. Normative References | 8.1. Normative References | |||
[RFC2119] Bradner, S., "Key words for use in RFCs to Indicate | [RFC2119] Bradner, S., "Key words for use in RFCs to Indicate | |||
Requirement Levels", BCP 14, RFC 2119, | Requirement Levels", BCP 14, RFC 2119, | |||
DOI 10.17487/RFC2119, March 1997, | DOI 10.17487/RFC2119, March 1997, | |||
<https://www.rfc-editor.org/info/rfc2119>. | <https://www.rfc-editor.org/info/rfc2119>. | |||
[RFC2918] Chen, E., "Route Refresh Capability for BGP-4", RFC 2918, | [RFC2918] Chen, E., "Route Refresh Capability for BGP-4", RFC 2918, | |||
DOI 10.17487/RFC2918, September 2000, | DOI 10.17487/RFC2918, September 2000, | |||
<https://www.rfc-editor.org/info/rfc2918>. | <https://www.rfc-editor.org/info/rfc2918>. | |||
skipping to change at page 6, line 24 ¶ | skipping to change at line 250 ¶ | |||
[RFC8174] Leiba, B., "Ambiguity of Uppercase vs Lowercase in RFC | [RFC8174] Leiba, B., "Ambiguity of Uppercase vs Lowercase in RFC | |||
2119 Key Words", BCP 14, RFC 8174, DOI 10.17487/RFC8174, | 2119 Key Words", BCP 14, RFC 8174, DOI 10.17487/RFC8174, | |||
May 2017, <https://www.rfc-editor.org/info/rfc8174>. | May 2017, <https://www.rfc-editor.org/info/rfc8174>. | |||
[RFC8481] Bush, R., "Clarifications to BGP Origin Validation Based | [RFC8481] Bush, R., "Clarifications to BGP Origin Validation Based | |||
on Resource Public Key Infrastructure (RPKI)", RFC 8481, | on Resource Public Key Infrastructure (RPKI)", RFC 8481, | |||
DOI 10.17487/RFC8481, September 2018, | DOI 10.17487/RFC8481, September 2018, | |||
<https://www.rfc-editor.org/info/rfc8481>. | <https://www.rfc-editor.org/info/rfc8481>. | |||
9.2. Informative References | 8.2. Informative References | |||
[I-D.ietf-sidrops-8210bis] | ||||
Bush, R. and R. Austein, "The Resource Public Key | ||||
Infrastructure (RPKI) to Router Protocol, Version 2", Work | ||||
in Progress, Internet-Draft, draft-ietf-sidrops-8210bis- | ||||
10, 16 June 2022, <https://www.ietf.org/archive/id/draft- | ||||
ietf-sidrops-8210bis-10.txt>. | ||||
[I-D.ietf-sidrops-aspa-verification] | [AS_PATH-VER] | |||
Azimov, A., Bogomazov, E., Bush, R., Patel, K., and J. | Azimov, A., Bogomazov, E., Bush, R., Patel, K., Snijders, | |||
Snijders, "BGP AS_PATH Verification Based on Resource | J., and K. Sriram, "BGP AS_PATH Verification Based on | |||
Public Key Infrastructure (RPKI) Autonomous System | Resource Public Key Infrastructure (RPKI) Autonomous | |||
Provider Authorization (ASPA) Objects", Work in Progress, | System Provider Authorization (ASPA) Objects", Work in | |||
Internet-Draft, draft-ietf-sidrops-aspa-verification-09, | Progress, Internet-Draft, draft-ietf-sidrops-aspa- | |||
11 July 2022, <https://www.ietf.org/archive/id/draft-ietf- | verification-11, 24 October 2022, | |||
sidrops-aspa-verification-09.txt>. | <https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/draft-ietf-sidrops- | |||
aspa-verification-11>. | ||||
[I-D.sas-idr-maxprefix-inbound] | [MAXPREFIX-INBOUND] | |||
Aelmans, M., Stucchi, M., and J. Snijders, "BGP Maximum | Aelmans, M., Stucchi, M., and J. Snijders, "BGP Maximum | |||
Prefix Limits Inbound", Work in Progress, Internet-Draft, | Prefix Limits Inbound", Work in Progress, Internet-Draft, | |||
draft-sas-idr-maxprefix-inbound-04, 19 January 2022, | draft-sas-idr-maxprefix-inbound-04, 19 January 2022, | |||
<https://www.ietf.org/archive/id/draft-sas-idr-maxprefix- | <https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/draft-sas-idr- | |||
inbound-04.txt>. | maxprefix-inbound-04>. | |||
[RFC6480] Lepinski, M. and S. Kent, "An Infrastructure to Support | [RFC6480] Lepinski, M. and S. Kent, "An Infrastructure to Support | |||
Secure Internet Routing", RFC 6480, DOI 10.17487/RFC6480, | Secure Internet Routing", RFC 6480, DOI 10.17487/RFC6480, | |||
February 2012, <https://www.rfc-editor.org/info/rfc6480>. | February 2012, <https://www.rfc-editor.org/info/rfc6480>. | |||
[RFC6482] Lepinski, M., Kent, S., and D. Kong, "A Profile for Route | [RFC6482] Lepinski, M., Kent, S., and D. Kong, "A Profile for Route | |||
Origin Authorizations (ROAs)", RFC 6482, | Origin Authorizations (ROAs)", RFC 6482, | |||
DOI 10.17487/RFC6482, February 2012, | DOI 10.17487/RFC6482, February 2012, | |||
<https://www.rfc-editor.org/info/rfc6482>. | <https://www.rfc-editor.org/info/rfc6482>. | |||
[RFC7947] Jasinska, E., Hilliard, N., Raszuk, R., and N. Bakker, | [RFC7947] Jasinska, E., Hilliard, N., Raszuk, R., and N. Bakker, | |||
"Internet Exchange BGP Route Server", RFC 7947, | "Internet Exchange BGP Route Server", RFC 7947, | |||
DOI 10.17487/RFC7947, September 2016, | DOI 10.17487/RFC7947, September 2016, | |||
<https://www.rfc-editor.org/info/rfc7947>. | <https://www.rfc-editor.org/info/rfc7947>. | |||
[RFC8205] Lepinski, M., Ed. and K. Sriram, Ed., "BGPsec Protocol | [RFC8205] Lepinski, M., Ed. and K. Sriram, Ed., "BGPsec Protocol | |||
Specification", RFC 8205, DOI 10.17487/RFC8205, September | Specification", RFC 8205, DOI 10.17487/RFC8205, September | |||
2017, <https://www.rfc-editor.org/info/rfc8205>. | 2017, <https://www.rfc-editor.org/info/rfc8205>. | |||
[RPKI-ROUTER-PROT-v2] | ||||
Bush, R. and R. Austein, "The Resource Public Key | ||||
Infrastructure (RPKI) to Router Protocol, Version 2", Work | ||||
in Progress, Internet-Draft, draft-ietf-sidrops-8210bis- | ||||
10, 16 June 2022, <https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/ | ||||
draft-ietf-sidrops-8210bis-10>. | ||||
Acknowledgements | ||||
The authors wish to thank Alvaro Retana, Ben Maddison, Derek Yeung, | ||||
John Heasley, John Scudder, Matthias Waehlisch, Nick Hilliard, Saku | ||||
Ytti, and Ties de Kock. | ||||
Authors' Addresses | Authors' Addresses | |||
Randy Bush | Randy Bush | |||
IIJ Research Lab & Arrcus, Inc. | IIJ Research Lab & Arrcus, Inc. | |||
1856 SW Edgewood Dr | 1856 SW Edgewood Dr | |||
Portland, Oregon 97210 | Portland, OR 97210 | |||
United States of America | United States of America | |||
Email: randy@psg.com | Email: randy@psg.com | |||
Keyur Patel | Keyur Patel | |||
Arrcus, Inc. | Arrcus, Inc. | |||
2077 Gateway Place, Suite #400 | 2077 Gateway Place, Suite #400 | |||
San Jose, CA 95119 | San Jose, CA 95119 | |||
United States of America | United States of America | |||
Email: keyur@arrcus.com | Email: keyur@arrcus.com | |||
Philip Smith | Philip Smith | |||
PFS Internet Development Pty Ltd | PFS Internet Development Pty Ltd | |||
PO Box 1908 | PO Box 1908 | |||
Milton QLD 4064 | Milton QLD 4064 | |||
Australia | Australia | |||
Email: pfsinoz@gmail.com | Email: pfsinoz@gmail.com | |||
Mark Tinka | Mark Tinka | |||
SEACOM | SEACOM | |||
Building 7, Design Quarter District, Leslie Avenue, Magaliessig | Building 7, Design Quarter District | |||
Leslie Avenue, Magaliessig | ||||
Fourways, Gauteng | Fourways, Gauteng | |||
2196 | 2196 | |||
South Africa | South Africa | |||
Email: mark@tinka.africa | Email: mark@tinka.africa | |||
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